Novalis. 1772-1801. German Romantic poet.

Novotny, Antonin. 1904-75. Stalinist Czech leader 1953-68. Deposed.

Nuremberg Rallies. 1933-8. Annual Nazi festivals followed by Hitler policy speech.

Nuremberg Trials. 1945-6. Trials of 22 Nazi leaders for crimes in WWII. 12 death sentences.

OAU. Organization of African Unity. 1963. Formed to improve living standards and eliminate colonialism.

Obelisk. 3300 year old Luxor gift of Muhammad Ali to Charles X, 1829. Place de la Concorde, Paris.

O’Casey, Sean. 1880-1964. Irish Realist playwright: Juno and the Paycock 1924. Plow and the Stars 1926.

Occam, William. c1280-1349. English Franciscan Nominalist philosopher. “Science is about things, philosophy about terms and concepts”. Occam’s razor: “It is vain to do with more, what can be done with fewer” (Science or Logic). Incompatibility of knowledge and faith, 1332. Opposed Aquinas Aristotelian realism. “Universal ideas exist only in the mind”. Influenced Reformation.

Occasionalism. Will is free. God arranges that what man wills, happens. Determinism. Free Will.

Occultism. Belief in supernatural. Astrology, alchemy, spiritualism, theosophy.

Ochs, Adolph. 1858-1935. US journalist vs Yellow (sensationalist) Journalism. NY Times.

October Revolution. 1917. Bolsheviks, Lenin and Trotsky overthrow Kerensky’s Socialist provisional government in Russian Revolution.

OECD. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. 1961. For expansion of world trade. OEEC + US, Canada, Australia, NZ.

Omar. 581-644. Second Moslem caliph. Invaded Syria, Egypt, Persia. Established taxation.

Opéra-Comique. 18C-. French light opera infl by Italian Opera Buffa. Grétry.

Opium Wars. 1839-42 Hong Kong ceded to Britain. 1856-60. French, British force China to open trade, legalize opium. Demonstrated European weapon superiority. Nanking Treaty.

Orlando, Vittorio. 1860-1952. Italian Prime Minister 1917-19. Versailles negotiator.

Orléans, Louis Philippe, duc d’. 1747-93. Became Citizen Égalité 1892. Joined Third Estate. Father of King Louis-Philippe.

Orsini Affair. 1858. Unsuccessful plot on Napoleon III led to his interest in Italian unity.

Osama bin Laden. 1957-. Wahabi Saudi Arabian construction magnate turned terrorist. World Trade Center. Taliban. al-Qaeda.

Oscar I. 1799-1859. King of Norway and Sweden 1844-. Liberal reforms.

Owen, Robert. 1771-1858. Welsh socialist. Began utopian cooperatives in England and US. Lanark 1799. Rochdale 1844.

Oxford Movement. 1833-45. Christian Socialist Tractarian movement for return to RC ritual, dogma in Anglican Church.

Paganini, Niccolo. 1782-1840. Italian violinist, composer. Revolutionized harmonics use. Capricci 1801-7.

Paix des Dames. Cambrai Treaty. 1529. Francis I’s mother and Charles V’s aunt negotiate halt to Italian Wars.

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