John XX. Non-existent pope due to miscount by John XXI.

Joseph II. 1741-90. Holy Roman Emperor, 1765-. Enlightened despot. Edict of Tolerance. Dominated by mother, Maria Theresa -1780.

Juan Carlos I. 1938-. Spanish king 1975-. Son of Carlist pretender Don Juan. Withstood coup, 1981.

Junta. Emergency administrative council. Often after an overthrow of existing government.

Kierkegaard, Sören. 1813-55. Danish founder of Existentialism. Either-Or 1843. Fear and Trembling 1843. Influenced Heidegger. Individual must consciously choose among life’s alternatives.

Laing, R.D. 1927-89. British Existential psychologist. Madness as form of self-expression.

Legal Tender Act. 1862. US authorizes paper money without gold backing.

Leopold II. 1747-92. Holy Roman Emperor 1790-. “Enlightened despot”. Liberal reforms. Declaration of Pillnitz for absolutism.

Le Verrier, Urbain. 1811-77. French astronomer: predicted existence of Neptune by calculation, 1845.

Lettres de Cachet. 16C-1789. French royal warrants for arrest. Often political. Bastille.

Lichtenstein, Roy. 1923-97. New York Pop ‘comic strip’ artist. Whaam! 1963.

Liechtenstein. 5C Alemanni. Franks. 1342 Independent. 1396 HRE. 1719 Principality «HRE. 1806 Rhine Confederation.1815 German Confederation. 1852 Customs Union with Austria 1923 Customs Union with Switzerland.

Little Entente. 1920-38. Economic, defensive alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia.

Locke, John. 1632-1704. English philosopher. Empiricism-all knowledge is derived from experience: On Civil Government 1689. Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1690. ‘Sound mind in a sound body’. Evil brings pain, Good brings pleasure. Advocated separation of legislature from executive, as applied in Britain and US. Natural rights (property, pursuit of happiness, religion) influenced US Constitution, led to Enlightenment. Philosophical basis of French and American Revolutions. Epistemological foundations of modern Science.

Lombard, Peter. 1100-1160. Italian bishop. Book of Sentences.

Louis XIII. The Just. 1601-43. French King 1610-. With Richelieu, extended monarchs power. Absolutism.

Luther, Martin. 1483-1546. German Christian reformer opposed to indulgences. Wittenberg. -’Even if heaven and hell do not exist, education is important’ Justification by faith alone. Melanchthon. 95 Theses 1517. Treatise on Christian Liberty. New Testament translated to vernacular 1522. Catechisms 1529. Canticles 1533. Excommunicated 1520, burns Papal Bull. Choral composer: moral effects of music.

Maintenon, Françoise de. 1635-1719. Mistress, then secret wife of Louis XIV. Founded St-Cyr.

Marcel, Gabriel. 1889-1973. French Existential philosopher. Experience more important than metaphysics.

Marlowe, Christopher. 1564-93. English dramatist: Tamerlane 1586. Dr. Faustus 1588-92. Edward II. May have written some of Shakespeare.

Mazarin Bible. c1455. First book printed with moveable type. (Gutenberg 42-line).

McLuhan, Marshall. 1911-80. Canadian author on effect of media on society. Gutenberg Galaxy. -“Global Village”.-“Medium is the message”.

Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. 1908-61. French philosopher blending existentialism, Marxism, phenomenology.

Michelson, Albert. 1852-1931. Polish/US physicist. With Morley, disproved existence of ether 1887. Measured speed of light.

Miguel, Dom. 1802-66. Pretender to Portuguese throne 1828- causes Civil War 1831-4.

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