Tubruq, Battle. WWII. British defeat Italians in Libya.

Ugolino della Gherardesca. -1289. Italian Guelf noble. Executed by starvation for treason.

Valla, Lorenzo. 1407-57. Italian Humanist scholar. Exposed Donation of Constantine, 1440.

Vasari, Giorgio. 1511-74. Italian Mannerist painter, architect, writer. Coined term Renaissance. Painters Lives 1550. Uffizi Palace architect.

Vega Carpio, Lope Felix de. 1562-1635. “Father” of Spanish drama. 1800 plays. Italian form to Spanish poetry.

Venetian school. 15-18C Italian Arcadian painting of brilliant mosaic color. Bellini, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto. Montegna.

Verdi, Giusseppe. 1813-1901. Italian Nationalist operatic composer. Otello. Rigoletto 1851. Traviata 1853. Aida 1871.

Vico, Giambattista. 1668-1744. Italian cultural philosopher: Scienzo Nuova 1720.

Victor Emmanuel III. 1869-1947. Last Italian king 1900~46. Supported Mussolini. Abdicated.

Volsci. -338BC. Italian peoples conquered by Rome.

Volta, Alessandro. 1745-1827. Italian physicist: electric battery 1800.

Wolf, Hugo. 1860-1903. Austrian poet/song writer. Subtle interweaving of piano and vocal based on German, Spanish, Italian poems.

Wyat, Thomas. 1503-42. English poet. Introduced Italian sonnet form to English.

Young Italy. 1831-48 Mazzini movement to establish an Italian Republic.

Zuccarelli, Francesco. 1702-88. Italian landscape artist. Influenced English. Florentine Royal Academy 1768.

Achilles. Greek hero of Trojan Wars, invulnerable except for his heel, subject of Homer’s Iliad.

Adrianople, Treaty. 1829. Ends Russo-Turkish War. Ottomans cede control of Greece.

Aegospotami. 405BC. Naval battle, ends Peloponnesian War. Victory of Lysander vs Athens.

Ajax. Greek hero of Trojan Wars.

Alabama Claims. 1872. US claim damages caused by British built warships in Civil War. $15M=£3.25M awarded by arbitration.

Albania. Balkans. 3-5C Visigoth, Huns invade. 6-7C Bulgars, Serbs, Slavs invade.12-15C Bulgar, Norman, Angevin, Serb, Venice contest.15C Ottoman. 1912 Independent republic. 1928 Monarchy (Zog). 1939 Italy occupies. 1945 Communist (Hoxha). 1961 Left Warsaw Pact. 1991 Democratic Constitution.

Altmark Truce. 1629-35. Polish-Swedish wars of succession.

Amiens, Treaty. 1527. Henry VIII, Francis I ally vs Charles V. 1802. England, France, Spain, Holland end French Revolutionary Wars. Britain cedes captured territory, gains Ceylon, Trinidad.

Anglo-Afghan Wars. 1839-42. 1878-80. 1919. British limit Russian influence, maintain buffer to India.

Anglo-American War. 1812-14. US, angry at British blockade of France, and Tippecanoe interference, invades Canada. Toronto and White House burned. US defeated. Ghent Treaty.

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