Papua New Guinea. New Guinea. SE: 1884 British. 1906 Australia = Papua. NE: 1884 German. 1914 Australian mandate. 1949 united. 1975 Independent.

Paraguay. Guarani. 1526 Cabot explores. 1535 Spanish. 1811 Independent. 1954 Dictatorship.

Peru. Settled 8000BC. 15C Inca. 1532 Pizarro conquers for Spain. 1821 Independent.

Poland. c2000BC Slavs settle. 9C Tribes unite. 966 =Poland. Mieszko I. 1038 Piast dynasty. 1386 +Lithuania. 1572- Kings elected, weak. 1772,93,95. Partitioned by Russia(E), Austria(SW), Prussia(NW). 1815 Congress Kingdom (Russia). 1918 Independent republic. 1926 Dictatorship. 1939 Germany/Russia occupy. 1941 Germany. 1945 Independent. 1947 Communist. 1952 People’s Republic. 1989 Free elections. Solidarity.

Pomerania. Baltic area including Danzig. Independent duchy 11-17C.

Portugal. Iberians, Celts. 5-4C BC Greek colony. c225BC Carthage(S). 2C BC Rome. 411 Suevi. 5C Visigoth. 711 Moor. 868 Christian(N). c1060 León. 1143 Independent kingdom. 1250 Moors expelled. 1500 +Brazil. 1580 Spain. 1640 Independent. 1820 Constitutional Monarchy. 1822 -Brazil. 1910 Republic. 1932 Salazar dictator. 1976 Democracy.

Prussia. 1226 Teutonic Knights. 1466 «Poland. 1525 Duchy of Poland. c1660 Independent. 1701 Kingdom. 1772-95 +NW Poland. 1871 Dominated German Empire. 1919 Weimar(W)/ Poland(E). 1933 Germany(W). Bismarck.

Qatar. 18C Bahrain. 1868 Independent. 1916 British protectorate. 1971 Independent.

Realism. General concepts have an existence independent of material things or names. Plato. St Anselm.

Romania. Balkans. Dacia. 15C Ottoman. 1859 Moldavia+Walachia. 1878 Independent. 1918 + Bessarabia, Transylvania. 1940 -Bessarabia. 1947 People’s Republic. 1955 Warsaw Pact. 1989 Revolt. Ceausescu overthrown.

Royal Academy of Arts. 1768. 40 members. Based on Hogarth’s Society of Independent Artists.

Ruanda Urundi. Batwa. Bahuta. 14C Watusi. 1897 German East Africa. 1916 Belgium. 1923 League of Nations mandate 1962 Independent. Rwanda, Burundi.

Rwanda. -1962 Ruanda-Urundi. 1962 Independent republic.

San Marino. 301 St Marinus the Dalmation settles. 1463 expanded. 1600 Constitution. Oldest, smallest independent republic.

Sao Tomé and Principe. 1470 Portugal discovers. 15C Convicts, exiled Jews settle. Important in slave trade. 1951 Portugal Overseas Province. 1975 Independent.

Sarawak. 15C Brunei. 1841 Independent (Brooke). 1941 Japanese occupy. 1946 British Crown Colony. 1963 Malaysia.

Scheele, Carl. 1742-86. Sweden. Discovered oxygen 1771/2, independent of Priestley. Chlorine gas 1774.

Senanayake, D.S. 1884-1952. “Father” of Independent Ceylon. Prime Minister 1947-.

Senegal. Wolof, Fulani, Serer, Tukulor. 1406 Bettencourt explored. 15C Portugal. 1626 French settle. 1895 French colony. 1959 +Sudanese Republic=Mali Federation. 1960 -Mali=Independent republic.

Serbia. 7C Serbs. 890 Bulgar Empire. 1159 Nemanya unites. 1389 Ottoman. 1830 Autonomous Russian protectorate. 1878 Independent. 1882 Kingdom. 1913 +N Macedonia. 1918 Yugoslavia. 1946 People’s Republic of Yuguslavia. 1992 +Montenegro =Yugoslavia. Kosovo.

Seychelles. 1505 Portugal discovers. 1756 France. 1794 British. 1903 Crown Colony. 1976 Independent republic.

Shimonoseki Treaty. 1895. Ended first Sino-Japanese War. Japan gained Taiwan, Port Arthur. Korea independent.

Sierra Leone. 1462 Portugal discovers. 16C Slave source. 1786 British freed slave colony. 1788 British Crown Colony. 1961 Independent.

Sikh States, Confederation of. 1764 Independent from Mogul. 1819 + Kashmir. 1834 + Peshawar. 1849 British. 1948 India.

Sikkim. c1640 Independent kingdom. 1780 Nepal invades. 1814 Independent. 1861 British protectorate. 1947 Indian suzerainty. 1975 Indian state.

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