Toleration, Edict of. 1781. Holy Roman Empire. Freedom of worship.

Tolkien, JRR. 1892-1973. English philologist, fantasy novelist. Lord of the Rings 1954.

Tolpuddle Martyrs. 1834. 6 British farmworkers transported despite protests for union organizing.

Tolstoy, Lev. 1828-1910. Russian historical novelist. Moralist. Occupied with social reforms; freed his serfs. Founded Christian anarchist religion. War and Peace 1863-9. Anna Karenina 1875-7.

Toltec. 9-13C. C. Mexican urban warrior peoples. Sun worshippers. Defeated by Aztecs.

Tone, Wolfe. 1763-98. Irish nationalist leader, rebel. Led French force to Ireland 1798. Suicide. United Irishmen.

Tonga. c500BC Polynesians. 1616 Dutch explore. 1777 Cook. 1900 British protectorate. 1970 Independent.

Tontine. 1653-1789. Fund, first created by Tonti. Members invest for increasing annuity as others die, with the last receiving the balance.

Tonypandy Riots. 1910. Police control striking coal miners. Cavalry held in reserve by Churchill.

Torch, Operation. 1942-3. Anglo-US operations in French NW Africa. Vichy France calls for Axis support in Tunis.

Tordesillas, Treaties. 1494. Spain, Portugal divide colonies in America and East according to Demarcation Bull of Alexander VI. Spain west, Portugal east of 48.5°W.

Torquemada, Tomás de. 1420-98. Dominican Inquisitor General, Spain. Worst atrocities. Expelled Jews 1492.

Torricelli, Evangelista. 1608-47. Italian physicist. mercury barometer, vacuum 1643.

Torun, Treaty. 1466. Poland, Teutonic Knights. Poland regains Prussia. Knights acknowledge Polish sovereignty.

Tory. Term (Irish = outlaw) applied 1679 to Duke of York supporters. English Royalist political party 1690-1830, refounded as Conservative Party 1833. In US: =colonists loyal to Britain during American Revolution.

Toscanini, Arturo. 1867-1957. Italian virtuoso conductor of Verdi, Beethoven.

Tostig. -1066. Brother of English Harold II. Aided William the Conqueror and Norway’s Harold III invasions of England.

Totalitarianism. Government which tries to fully control life of citizens. Fascist Italy. Nazi Germany. Communist Russia.

Tour d’Argent. Paris restaurant where Henry IV learned the use of the fork.

Toussaint L’Ouverture, Francois. c1743-1803. Haitian rebel. Helped French expel Britain, Spain. Emancipated slaves. Established black governed French protectorate.

Tower of London. 1066- Palace for William I. Used as prison and garrison at later dates. White Tower 1078.

Townshend Act. 1767-70. Reasserted English authority in American colonies. Import duties.

Towton, Battle. 1461. York victory in War of Roses. Henry VI fled England. Edward IV took crown.

Toynbee, Arnold J. 1889-75. English historian on the cyclicality of civilizations. Study of History 1934-61.

Trabzon Empire. 1204-1461. Independent Byzantine Empire after fall of Constantinople. Defeated by Ottomans.

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